The Crucifixion

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Greetings Saints!

I read this for the first time several years ago when I first came to
the Lord.  Seems like it was originally published in one of the medical
journals like the New England Journal of Medicine, or an American Medical
Association Journal....

The subject matter is not a pretty picture.  I was able to get a copy of
it from someone that wanted to post it to CHRISTIA but couldn't because
the length of it made the listprocessor reject it.  So I wrote the guy's
autoresponder and it was sent automagically to me.

This would have probably been more appropriate to have posted it last
week.  Sorry that I'm late in getting it sent out.  

I don't dare ask anyone to "enjoy" this other than enjoy the salvation 
that God has so granted because of the terrible sacrifice given on the
cross.

Bro. Tyler
 
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                  THE CRUCIFIXION OF JESUS...

                (from a medical point of view) 
                     by Dr: C. Truman Davis


In this paper, I shall discuss some of the physical aspects of the
passion, or suffering, of Jesus Christ. We shall follow Him from
Gethsemane, thru' His trial, His scourging, His path along the Via
Dolorosa, to His last dying hours on the cross.

For years I had.taken the crucifixion for granted and had become
calloused to its horror and the agony my Savior suffered for me. It
finally occured to me that as a physician I didn't even know the
actual immediate cause of death.

The infinite psychic and spiritual suffering of the Incarnate God in
atonement for the sins of fallen man I have no competence to
discuss; however, the physiological and anatomical aspects of our
Lord's passion we can examine in some detail...what did the body of
Jesus of Nazareth actually endure during those hours of torture?

This led me first to a study of the practice of crucifixion itself;
that is, the torture and execution of a person by fixation to a
cross. Apparently, the first known practice of crucifixion was by
the Persians. Alexander and his generals brought it back to the
Mediterranean world--to Egypt and to Carthage. The Romans apparently
learned the practice from the Carthaginians and rapidly developed a
very high degree of efficiency and skill in carrying it out. The
upright beam of the cross could have the cross-arm attached two or
three feet below its top--this is what we commonly think of today
as the classical form, of the cross (the one which we have later
named the La.tin cross); however, the common form used in our Lord's
day was a cross shaped like our capital T. In this cross the cross-
arm was placed in a notch at.,the top of the upright beam. There is
fairly overwhelming archeological evidence that it was on this type
of cross that Jesus was crucified.

The upright beam or post was generally permanently fixed in the
ground at the site of execution and the condemned man was forced to
carry the cross-arm part which weighted approximately 110 pounds,
from the prison to the place of execution. Without any histioical or
biblical proof, medieval and Rennaisance painters have given us our
picture of Christ carrying the entire cross. Many of these painters
and most of the sculptors of crucifixes today show the nails thru'
the palms. Roman historical accounts and experimental work have
shown that the nails were driven between the small bones of the
wrists and not thru' the palms. Nails driven thru' the palms will
strip out between the fingers when they support the weight of a
human body. The misconception may bave come about thru' a
misunderstanding of Jesus' words to Thomas, "Observe my hands."
Anatomists, both modern and ancient, have always considered the
wrists as part of the hand.

A small sign stating the victim's crime was usually carried at the
front of the procession and later nailed to the cross above the head.
This sign with its staff nailed to the top of the cross would have
given it somewhat the characteristic form of the Latin cross.

The physical passion of Christ begins in Gethsemane. Of the many
aspects of this initial suffering, I shall only discuss one, the
bloody sweat. It is interesting that the physician of the group, Dr.
Luke, is the only one to mention this. He says, "And being in agony,
He prayed the.longer. And His sweat became as drops of blood,
trickling down upon the ground."

Every attempt imaginable has been used by modern scholars to explain
away this phase, apparently under the mistaken impression that this
just doesn't happen.

A great deal of effort  could be saved by consulting medical
literature. Tho' very rare, the phenomenon of Hematidrosis, or
bloody sweat, is well documented. Under great emotional stress, tiny
capillaries in the sweat glands can break, thus mixing blood with
sweat. This process alone could have produced marked weakness and
possible shock.

After the arrest in the middle of the night, Jesus was brot' before
the Sanhedrin and Caiphus, the High Priest; it is here that the
first physical trauma or pain was inflicted. A soldier struck Jesus
across the face for remaining silent when questioned by Caiphas. The
palace guards then blindfolded Him and mockingly taunted Him to
identify them as they each passed by, spat on Him, and struck Him in
the face.

In the early morning, Jesus, battered and bruised, dehydrated, and
exhaused from a sleepless night, is taken across Jerusalem to the
Fortress Antonia to appear before Pontius Pilate. You are familiar
with Pilate's attempt to pass responsibility to Herod Antipas, the
Tetrarch of Judea. Jesus apparently suffered no physical mistreatment
at the hands of Herod and was returned to Pilate. It was then, in
response to the cries of the mob, that Pilate ordered Bar-Abbas
released and condemned Jesus to scourging and crucifixion.

Preparations for the scourging are carried out. The prisoner is
stripped of His clothing and His hands tied to a post above His head.
It is doubtful whether the Romans made any attempt to follow the
Jewish law in this matter of scourging. The Jews had an ancient law
probibiting more than 40 lashes. The Pharisees, always making sure
that the law was strictly kept, insisted that only 39 lashes be
given. (In case of a miscount, they were sure to be in within
the law.) The Roman legionnaire steps forward with the flagrum in
his hand. This is a short whip consisting of several heavy, leather
thongs with two small balls of lead attached near the ends of each.
The heavy whip is brot' down with full force again and again across
Jesus' shoulders, back and legs. At first the heavy thongs cut thru'
the skin only. Then, as the blows continue, they cut deeper into the
tissues, producing first an oozing of blood from the capillaries and
veins of the skin, and finally spurting arterial bleeding from
vessels in the underlying muscles. The sma.ll balls of lead first
produce large, deep bruises which are broken open by subsequent
blows. Finally the skin of the back.is hanging in long ribbons and
the entire area is an unrecognizable mass of torn, bleeding tissue.
When it is determined by the centurian in charge that the prisoner is
near death, the beating is finally stopped.

The half-fainting Jesus is then untied and allowed to slump to the
stone pavement, wet with His own blood. The Roman soldiers see a
great joke in this lowly Jew claiming to be a king. They throw a robe
across His shoulders and place a stick in His hand for a scepter.
They still need a crown to make their travesty complete. A small
bundle of flexible branches covered with thorns are plaited into the
shape of a crown and this is pressed into.H.is. scalp. Again there is
bleeding (the scalp being one of the most vascular areas of the
body.) After mocking Him and striking Him across the face, the
soldiers take the stick from His hand and strike Him across the
head, driving the thorns deeper into His scalp. Finally, they tire of
their sadistic sport and the robe is torn from His back. This had
already become adherent to the clots of blood and serum in the
wounds, and its removal,just as in the careless removal of a
surgical bandage, causes excruciating  pain.  Almost as tho' He were
again being whipped--and the wounds again begin to bleed.

In observance to Jewish custom, the Romans return His garments. The
heavy cross-arm of the cross is tied across His shoulders, and the
procession of the condemned Christ, two thieves and the execution.
detail of Roman soldiers, headed by a centurian, begins its slow
journey to Calvary. In spite of His efforts to walk erect, the weight
of the heavy  wooden beam, together with the shock produced by blood
loss, is too much. He stumbles and falls. The rough wood of the beam
gouges into the lacerated skin and muscles of the shoul.ders. He
tries to rise, but human endurance has been exhausted. The
centurian, anxious to get on with the crucifixion, selects a North
African onlooker, Simon of Cyrene, to carry the cross. Jesus follows,
still bleeding and sweating the cold, clammy sweat of shock. The 650
yard journey from the fortress Antonia to Golgotha is finally
completed. The prisoner is again stripped of His clothes--except for
a loin cloth which is allowed the Jews.

The crucifixion begins. Jesus is offered wine mixed with Myrrh, a
mild analgesic mixture. He refuses to drink. Simon is ordered to
place the crossarm on the ground and Jesus is quickly thrown
backward with His shoulders against the wood. The legionnaire feels
for the depression at the front of the wrist. He drives a heavy,
square, wrought-iron nail thru  the wrist and deep into the wood.
Quickly, he moves to the other side and repeats the action, being
careful not to pull the arms too tightly, but to allow some flexion
and movement. The cross-arm is then lifted in place at the top of the
upright beam and the small sign reading "Jesus of Nazareth, King of
the Jews" is nailed in place.

The left foot is pressed backward against the right foot, and with
both feet extended, toes down, a nail is driven thru' the arch of
each, leaving the knees moderately flexed. The Uictim is now
crucified. As He slowly sags down with more weigh.t on the nails in
the wrists, excruciating, fiery pain shoots along the fingers and up
the arms to explode in the brain--the nails in the wrists are
putting pressure on the median nerves. As He pushes Himself upward
to avoid this stretching torment, He places His full weight on the
nail thru' His feet. Again there is the searing agony of the nail
tearing thru' the nerves between the bones of the feet.

At this point, another phenomenon occurs. As the arms fatigue, great
waves of cramps sweep over the muscles, knotting them in deep,
relentless, throbbing pain. With these cramps comes the inability to
push Himself upward. Hanging by His arms, the pectoral muscles are
paralyzed and the inter coastal muscles are unable to act. Air can be
drawn into the lungs, but cannot be exhaled. Jesus fights to raise
Himself in order to get even one short breath. Finally, carbon
dioxide builds up in the lungs and in the blood stream and the cramps
partially subside. Spasmodically, He is able to push Himself upward
to exhale and bring in the life-giving oxygen. It was undoubtedly
during these periods that He uttered the seven short sentences which
are recorded:

The first, looking down at the Roman soldiers throwing dice for His
seamless garment, "Father, forgive them for they know not what they
do."

The second to the penitent theif, "Today thou shalt be with me in
Paradise." 						     

The third to the grief-sticken John, "Behold thy mother," and to Mary
His mother, "Woman, behold thy son."                                


The fourth cry is the beginning of the 22nd Psalm, "My God, my God,
why hast thou forsaken me?"

Hours of this limitless pain, cycles of twisting, joint-rending
cramps, intermittent partial asphixiation, searing pain as tissue is
torn from His lacerated back as He moves up and down against the
rough timber: Then another agony begins. A deep crushing pain deep in
the chest as the pericardium slowly fills with serum and begins to
compress the heart.

Let us remember again the 22nd Psalm, "I am poured out like water,
and all my bones are out of joint: my heart is like wax; it is melted
in the midst of my bowels."

It is now almost over--the loss of tissue fluids has reached a
critical level--the compressed heart is struggling to pump heavy,
thick, sluggish blood into the tissues--the tortured lungs are making
a frantic effort to gasp in small gulps of air. The markedly
dehydrated tissues send their flood of stimuli to the brain.

Jesus utters His 5th cry, "I thirst."

Psalm 22, "My strength is dried up like a potsherd; and my tongue
cleaveth to my jaws; and thou has brot' me into the dust of death."

A sponge soaked in Posca, the cheap, sour wine which is the staple
drink of the Roman legionnaires, is lifted to His lips. He doesn't
take any of the liquid. The body of Jesus is now close to death.

The 6th cry, "It is finished," is a cry of victory. The payment for
sin has been paid in full.

His mission of atonement has been completed. Finally He can allow
His body to die.

With one last surge of strength, He once again presses His torn feet
against the nail,straightens His legs, takes a deeper breath, and
utters His 7th and final cry, "Father, into thy hands I commit my
spirit."

The rest you know. In order that the Sabbath not be profaned, the
Jews asked that the condemned men be dispatched and removed from the
crosses. The common method of ending a crucifixion was by breaking
the bones of the legs. Th.is prevented the victim from pushing
himself upward; the tension could not be relieved from the muscles of
the chest, and rapid suffication occurred. The legs of the two
thieves were broken, but when they came to Jesus they saw that this
was unnecessary.

Apparently to make doubly sure of death, the legionnaire drove his
lance between the ribs of Jesus, upward thru' the  pericardium and
into the heart. John 19:34 says, "And immediately there came out
blood and water." Thus there  was an escape of watery fluid from the
sac surrounding the heart and blood from the interior of the heart.

Thus we have seen a gllmpse of the epitomy of evil which man can
exhibit toward man--and toward God. This is not a pretty sight and is
apt to leave us despondent and depressed. How grateful we can be that
we have a sequel: A glimpse of the infinite mercy of God toward
man--the miracle of the atonement and the expectation of Easter
morning!  HE AROSE ! ! ! !

           -----------------End-of-Article 1--------------

        -----------------Beginning-of-Article 2--------------

                   About Crucifixions....

The soldiers would then alternate their blows flogging the back,
buttocks and legs. The severity was dependent upon the disposition of
the soldiers, and was usually limited to thirty-nine lashes in
accordance with Jewish law (2Cor.11:24). In addition to the
previously mentioned results of the scourging, it also produced a
condition known as hemitidrosis. This syndrome, a result  of blunt
trauma  to the skin, causes swelling and bleeding under the skin, and
results in the skin becoming extremely tender and sensitive.

As a result of a vicious beating, the victim undoubtedly lost a con-
siderable amount of blood. Thus the severity of the flogging and the
resultant blood loss could lead to circulatory collapse and shock.
This could well determine the length of time that a victim could
survive on the cross. Although the Gospels do not discuss the
severity of the scourging, no doubt it was severe considering the
phynical weakness of Jesus on His way to the cross. We do know that
Christ was mocked and taunted by Roman soldiers, His beard was
plucked out, and a robe was placed across His shoulders Later, when
this robe was removed, the scourging wounds were probably reopened,
and the bleeding resumed. Further blood loss would have resulted and
Jesus probably would have been near circulatory shock.

After the scourging, it was customary for the condemned man to carry
his cross-bar to the crucifixion site, but as Scriptures tell us,
Jesus was so weakened by the flogging and by the abusive treatment of
the Roman soldiers that He was unable to bear His cross-bar the
entire distance to Calvary.

At the execution site, it was the custom of the Romans to nail the
victims to the cross with tapered spikes five to seven inches in
length. The spikes were nailed through the wrists (the Greek word for
hand includes the wrist) rather than the palms since the wrists
would give better support and were less likely to tear.

The survival time of the cross generally ranged from a few hours to
three or four days and was inversely related to the severity of the
scourging. Since no one was intended to survive a crucifixion, one
of the Roman guards would customarily hasten death by either breaking
the legs below the knees, or by piercing the body with a spear or
lance.

The Roman soldiers were probably taught that an efficient fatal
wound would result from a spear wound to the right chest wall,
thereby puncturing the heart. Since Roman spears were five to six
feet in length, one could easily reach the chest of a man crucified
on the customary low cross.

The major physiological effect of the crucifixion, beyond the
excruciating pain caused by the spikes, was a marked restriction of
respiration, primarily exhalation. With the weight of th body pulling
down on the outstretched arms and shoulders, the respiratory
muscles located between the ribs would be fixed in an inhalation
state and thereby make exhalation a difficult feat requiring
significant strength.


Although shallow exhalations were possible, this would suffice for
only a short while. Only by elevating the body by pulling up on the
hands while pushing upward with the legs (thus supporting the entire
weight of the body by the pierced members):could normal exhalation be
accomplished. However, this was such a painful maneuver that it could
be performed only intermittently, and for short periods of time. In
addition, the lifting of the body probably would painfully scrape the
scourged back against the rough wood of the cross, and cause a
resumption of the bleeding.

As noted above, respirations were primarily diaphragmatic and thus
very shallow. With such shallow breathing, carbon dioxide would
quickly accumulate in the blood leading to painful muscle cramps
and tetany. With the limitation of breathing, combined with the
circulatory shock that was probably present, fluid would quickly
aecumulate in.the lungs and in the pericardium (the sac surrounding
the heart). This would further worsen respiration and hasten death.
Death on the cross usually resulted from suffocation, shock, and
exhaustion as a direct result of the victim's attempts to breathe.
Other possible contributing factors would include dehydration
(dependent upon the length of time spent on the cross), pulmonary
edema (water on the lungs), and congestive heart failure.

In the case of our Lord, the Gospel of John describes the piercing
of Christ's side and the outflowing of blood and water. Many have
assumed that the passage referred to the piercing of the abdomen, and
that the water resulted from puncturing the bladder or the presence
of ascites (intraabdominal fluid that can collect as a result of
stress or disease). However, a study of the Greek word for "side"
used in the passage is pleura, which clearly refers to the chest
rather than the abdomen.

Our lungs and the walls of the internal chest cavity are lined with
a thin, clear membrane called the "pleural lining" thus it seems
probable that the spear wound was to one side of the chest wall.
Tradition has depicted the right side, although John is not specific.
Medically speaking, this would support the idea of the flow of
"blood and water..." from Christ's side since the spear would first
puncture the lung and allow the accumulated water, probably due to
pulmonary edema, to flow out.

In congestive heart failure caused by stress, the right side of the
heart enlarges and results in fluid collecting in the lungs
(pulmonary edema) and pericardium. As the spear continued through the
lung, it would next puncture the pericardium (sac around the heart)
allowing more "water" to drain out of the wound. Finally, the
enlarged right ventricle of the heart would be punctured causing a
large flow of blood from the wound. Thus the water
probably represents clear fluid from the lungs and pericardial sac,
and the blood is from a direct puncture of the right side of the
heart.

Ourstudy of the possibile mechanisms   of our Lord's death is, at
best problematical and speculative. The real significance of the
death of Christ is that He ultimately conquered death, and He
arose from the dead three days later.